COMPUTATIONAL GENOMICS
THE "HOW" OF SCIENCE
1936
Alan Turing Develops the Computer
Alan Turing's development of algorithms that could follow logical instructions and computationally solve mathematical problems forms the basis of modern theories of computation. He imagined the possibility of a machine that could perform tasks based on a supplied algorithmic program. He called this computer a "Turing machine," a computational device that could perform automated tasks on the will of a clearly-defined algorithm. [4]
1928
Frederick Griffith discovers that traits can be interited
Frederick Griffith discovers in an experiment with virulent bacteria and mice that traits that are expressed in parents seem to be passed down to their offspring. He gives a virulent strain of bacteria to a mouse and then discovers that the ones that survive pass that immunity to their offspring. [3]
1953
Watson and Crick propose a model of DNA
James Watson and Francis Crick create a model of DNA that shows a double helix with rungs connecting nucleotide bases. Following the logic of Erwin Chargraff, Watson and Crick pair Thymine with Adenine and Guanine with Cytosine. They also theorized about how DNA replicated and how hereditary information is coded. This model of DNA is still roughly the one that we use today [6].
1950
Erwin Chargaff proposes rules about nucleotide bases in DNA
Through research, Erwin Chargaff discovers that the number of guanines units is equal to the number of cytosines and the number of adenine is similarly equal to the number of thymine unit, which hinted at the system of complementary bases. He also theorized that the amount of guanine, cytosine, adenine, and thymine varied from species to species. These two laws became known as Chargaff's Laws and were crucial to understanding the basic principles of DNA. [5]
1977
DNA is sequenced for the first time
Frederick Sanger and his team of researchers are the first to sequence the DNA of the full genome of a virus called phiX174. His method of sequencing DNA is not efficient enough to compete with the next-generation sequencing methods of today but is still used in smaller projects now. He will later go on to win a noble peace prize for his achievements in pioneering DNA sequencing methods [7].
1983
PCR is developed
Dr. Kary Mullis develops a method for replicating DNA while working at the Cetus Corporation in California. She coins her method Polymerase chain reaction or PCR and it is soon used all over the world to amplify DNA. PCR is now a common tool that is used throughout the research community and essential to the process of sequencing and analyzing DNA [9].
1982
GenBank is started
Genbank is established with the purpose of being an open-sourced free library of the nucleotide sequences and their genetic annotations. It has grown rapidly at a doubling rate of 18 months and now contains genetic information from over 100,000 different organisms. The database was started un 1982 by Walter Goad. The databank has become essential to biological and genetic research [8]
1985
Alec Jeffreys develops a method for DNA profiling
Alec Jeffreys uses his knowledge of DNA to develop a method to profile DNA. His method is now widely used in forensic sciences to assist police work and settle paternity and immigration disputes. In addition, DNA profiling has become an essential aspect of many bioinformatics products available today [10]
1990
The Human Genome Project is Launched
The Human Genome Project is launched with the goal of sequencing all 3 billion base pairs of the human genome in 15 years. The project was funded by the US Congress and was expected to cost 3 billion dollars. Francis Collins and the National Human Genome Research Institute ran the project [11]
1995
First Bacterial Genome is Sequenced
Haemophilus influenzae becomes the first bacterial genome to be entirely sequenced. The project, completed by J. Craig Venter showed the value of the shotgun sequencing technique used during the human genome project. It is the first genome to be completely sequenced that is self-replicating and free-living [12]
1996
Dolly the Sheep Becomes the First Animal to be Cloned
On July 5, 1996 a domestic sheep named Dolly becomes the first mammal to the cloned using an adult cell and nuclear transfer. She is cloned by Keith Campbell, Ian Wilmut and other professionals at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland [13]
1999
Ensembl DNA Database is Released
Ensembl genome database project was launched in response to the progress in the Human Genome Project as a resource for scientists who needed access to the genomic information of humans as well as other organisms. Ensembl remains one of the most well-known genome databases [14]
1999
First Chromosome Sequenced as Part of the Human Genome Project
The Human Genome Project announces that Chromosome 22 is the first human chromosome to ever be sequenced as part of the project. The chromosome likely carries 500-600 genes that code for various essential proteins [15]
2000
Full Genome of the Fruit Fly is Completed
The full genome sequence of a fruit fly is completed. This marks the fourth full genome that has been completed (E. coli bacterium, yeast and nematode worm). The results of the sequencing are recorded on a public database for general consumption [16].
2000
UC Santa Cruz Releases their Genome Browser
UC Santa Cruz launches a genome browser with the intent to share the genome sequences of many vertebrate and invertebrate species along with their annotations. The Browser's graphic view is interactive and open to everyone online. The Database and its files can be found on the UCSC Genome Bioinformatics Website [17]
2002
The First Mammal's Genome is Sequenced
The Mouse Genome Sequencing Consortium (MGSC) seeks to produce a genetic map of the genome of a mouse. This marks the first time that a mammal's genome is completely sequenced. The mouse's genome is 95% similar to that of a human [18]
2002
International HapMap Project is Launched
The International HapMap Project is launched, as a collaboration between researchers in biomedical countries across Japan, UK, Canada, China, Nigeria, and the US. It aims to catalog the genetic variations and where they are found in the genome. By cataloging these variations, scientists hope to understand how common diseases may have a correlation with genetic and environmental factors [19]
2003
Human Genome Project is Completed
The Human Genome Project is completed 2 years ahead of schedule. It consists of 19,000-20,000 genes at 99% accuracy. The whole project cost 2.7 billion dollars at the time of completion. The technology and information developed during the project will go on to revolutionize the way we obtain, analyze, and store genetic data [20].
2003
ENCODE project is launched
The ENCODE project is launched by the National Human Genome Research Institute at Stanford University with the goal of analyzing the function of every gene in the human genome. The project was suspected to cost 55 million dollars [21]
2010
Wellcome Trust Launches UK10K
Wellcome Trust launches a new project with the aim of comparing the genomes of 6,000 people living with a genetic disorder with the genomes of 4,000 healthy people. This project is called UK10K and was decided not to be published online due to the sensitive nature of the topic. It incorporated the participation of researchers working on many genetic disorders and diseases including thyroid disorders, obesity, heart disease, learning disorders, schizophrenia and autism. [22]
1865
Gregor Mendel Establishes the Basis of Genetics
Through his experimentation with pea plants, Gregor Mendel theorizes about the basic properties of heredity. He is able to theorize that genes come in pairs and are inherited from either parent. His experimentation leads to the development of a mathematical pattern for inheritance from one generation to another. His experiments took him eight years, over which he grew 10,000 pea plants. He is considered by many to be the "father of genetics." [1]
1869
Friedrich Miescher Discovers Nucleic Acids
Friedrich Miescher collects DNA from pus-filled bandages that he found at a local hospital. He isolates DNA from the pus and then eventually a salmon sperm and discovers a substance that he coins a "nuclein." His pupil later renames it a "nucleic acid," as it is referred to today. He also determines that the nuclein is composed of the elements hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. [2]